Abstract
Breast cancer (BC) is a highly metastatic, pathological cancer that significantly
affects women worldwide. The mortality rate of BC is related to its heterogeneity,
aggressive phenotype, and metastasis. Recent studies have highlighted that the tumor
microenvironment (TME) is critical for the interplay between metastasis mediators
in BC. BC stem cells, tumor-derived exosomes, circulatory tumor cells (CTCs), and
signaling pathways dynamically remodel the TME and promote metastasis. This review
examines the cellular and molecular mechanisms governing the epithelial to mesenchymal
transition (EMT) that facilitate metastasis. This review also discusses the role of
cancer stem cells (CSCs), tumor-derived exosomes, and CTs in promoting BC metastasis.
Furthermore, the review emphasizes major signaling pathways that mediate metastasis
in BC. Finally, the interplay among CSCs, exosomes, and CTCs in mediating metastasis
have been highlighted. Therefore, understanding the molecular cues that mediate the
association of CSCs, exosomes, and CTCs in TME helps to optimize systemic therapy
to target metastatic BC.
Graphical abstract
Graphical Abstract
Keywords
Abbreviations:
CAFs (Cancer-associated fibroblasts), DHh (Desert hedgehog), EpCAM (Epithelial cell adhesion molecules), FOXM1 (Forkhead Box M1), GLI1 (Glioma-associated oncogene), IHh (Indian hedgehog), IL6Rβ (Interleukin 6R beta), KRAS (Kirsten rat sarcoma virus), LATS2 (Large tumor suppressor kinase 2), MDSC (Myeloid-derived suppressor cell), NK cell (Natural killer cell), NPs (Nanoparticles), OTUB2 (Ubiquitin thioesterase), PAR1 (Protease-activated receptor 1), PTCH1 (Protein-patched homolog 1), SDF-1 (Stromal cell-derived factor), SMO (Smoothened), TAZ (Transcriptional activator with a PDZ binding motif), TLR (Toll-like receptor), TRAIL (Tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand), YAP1 (Yes-associated protein 1), ZEB1 (Zinc finger e-box 1)To read this article in full you will need to make a payment
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Article info
Publication history
Published online: May 18, 2022
Accepted:
May 15,
2022
Received in revised form:
April 23,
2022
Received:
December 6,
2021
Identification
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